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Application of Courbon’s Theory in the Analysis of T-Beam Bridge Decks

By
Ubani Obinna
-

Courbon’s theory is one of the popular classical methods of analysing slab and beam girder (T-beam) bridges. However, the results obtained from the method are usually very uneconomical when compared with other numerical methods like grillage analogy. It is one of the easiest manual calculation methods that can be adopted in evaluating the effect of traffic actions in bridge deck girders.

Courbon’s theory was originally developed for bridge girders with series of cross beams (diaphragm) in which the cross beams are stiff enough to provide adequate lateral stiffness. By implication, the application of the method requires that the cross beams will have a depth not less than 75% of the main longitudinal girders. It also requires that the span to width ratio of the bridge will be greater than 2 but less than 4.  

T beam bridge deck arrangement

Let us consider the application of Courbon’s theory on the bridge deck arrangement shown above. When the beams are equally spaced and geometrically equal, the reaction factor for each beam is given by equation (1);

Ri = P{(1/n) + 6ei/[nS(n + 1)]} ——- (1)

Where;
Ri = Reaction factor
P = Applied load
n = Number of longitudinal beams
S = Spacing of longitudinal beams
ei = Eccentricity of load with respect to the centroidal axis of the bridge deck

If we set P = 1.0, we can obtain the influence line pertaining to each beam.

Solved Example

A T-beam bridge deck with 3 girders is loaded according to Load Model 1 of EN 1991-2 as shown below. Using Courbon’s method, calculate the bending moment and shear force on girder number 1.

Loaded bridge deck

Setting P= 1.0 at girder number 1 as shown below, we can obtain the influence diagram using equation (1).

K

Ri = P{(1/n) + 6ei/[nS(n + 1)]}

R1 = 1.0{(1/3) + (6 x 3.6)/[3 x 3.6(3 + 1)]} = 0.833
R2 = 1.0{(1/3) + (6 x 0)/[3 x 3.6(3 + 1)]} = 0.333
R3 = 1.0{(1/3) + (6 x -3.6)/[3 x 3.6(3 + 1)]} = -0.167

The influence diagram for the girder is therefore given below. The values at the two cantilever portions of the bridge deck can be obtained using similar triangles.

Influence diagram for bridge deck

We can therefore apply the Load Model 1 on the influence line diagram. You will need careful calculation of the ordinates of the influence line diagram using similar triangle.

influence line of a loaded bridge

For the tandem wheel loads (concentrated wheel actions), we will multiply the wheel load by the ordinate that the influence line makes with the centreline of each tandem wheel load;
QT = (600 x 0.625) + (400 x 0.209) = 458.6 kN

For the uniformly distributed loads, we will multiply the load (udl) by the width and by the centroid the load makes with the ordinate of the influence line. We normally neglect the beneficial effect of the negative part of the influence line.
wT = (3 x 1.45 x 0.934) + (9 x 3 x 0.625) + (2.5 x 3 x 0.209) = 22.51 kN/m

Let us assume that we are dealing with 20m span bridge, the preliminary effect of the vehicle action on the girder can be taken as given below;

Loaded beam with internal stresses diagram

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Design of Timber Beams

By
Ubani Obinna
-

Design of flexural members such as timber beams principally involves consideration of the effects of actions such as bending, deflection, vibration, lateral buckling, shear, and bearing. The process of design of such structures is described in Eurocode 5 (EN 1995-1-1:2004), and a design example is shown in this article.

Design Example

Loaded Timber beam

A 75 mm by 200 mm deep sawn timber beam in a domestic residence supports the characteristic loading shown above. The beam has a clear span of 2.75 m, the bearing length has been restricted to 100 mm at each end, is of strength class C24 to BS EN 338:2003, and functions in service class 2 conditions. The beam is laterally restrained against lateral buckling along its length.

Given that;

Gk.udl  = 1.3 kN/m (characteristic uniformly distributed permanent action)
Qk.udl = 1.5 kN/m (characteristic uniformly distributed medium-term action)
Gk.p = 1.00 kN characteristic point load at mid-span

1. Beam geometric properties
Breadth of the beam b = 75 mm
Depth of the beam h = 200 mm
Clear span of the beam, lc = 2750 mm
Bearing length of the beam at each end, bl  = 100 mm
Design span of the beam l = (lc + lb) = 2750 + 100 = 2850 = 2.85 m
Section modulus of the beam about the y–y axis, Wy = bh2/6 = (75 × 2002)/6 = 5 × 105 mm3

2. Timber properties
Strength class C24 (BS EN 338:2003, Table 1):
Characteristic bending strength,  fm.k = 24 N/mm2
Characteristic shear strength,  fv.k = 2.5 N/mm2
Characteristic bearing strength,  fc,90,k = 2.5 N/mm2
Fifth-percentile modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain, E0.05 = 7.4 kN/mm2
Mean modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain, E0,mean = 11 kN/mm2
Mean shear modulus, G0,mean = 0.69 kN/mm2
Mean density of the beam timber, ρm = 420 kg/m3

3. Partial safety factors
(UKNA to BS EN 1990:2002, Table NA.A1.2(B))) for the ULS
Permanent actions, γG.ULS = 1.35
Variable actions, γQ.ULS = 1.5

(UKNA to BS EN 1990:2002, Table NA.A1.1 – Category A)
Factor for the quasi-permanent value of the variable action, ψ2 = 0.3

(UKNA to EC5, Table NA.3)
Material factor for solid timber at the ULS, γM = 1.3

4. Actions

(i) ULS
(a) Characteristic self-weight of the beam, Gk,swt
Gk,swt = b · h · g · ρm = (0.075 × 0.2 × 9.81 × 420)/1000 = 0.062 kN/m
Design action from the selfweight of the beam, Fd,swt
Fd,swt = γG.ULS · Gk.swt  = 1.35 × 0.062 = 0.0837 kN/m

(b) Characteristic permanent action due to the point load, Gk,p
Gk,p = 1.00 kN
Design permanent action due to the point load, Fd.p
Fd,p = γG.ULS · Gk.p =  1.35 ×  1.0 = 1.35 kN

(c) Characteristic permanent action due to the UDL, Gk,udl
Gk,udl = 1.3 kN/m
Design action due to the permanent action UDL, Fd,p,udl
Fd,p,udl = γG.ULS · Gk.udl  =1.35 x 1.3 = 1.755 kN/m

(d) Characteristic medium-term action due to the UDL, Qk,udl
Qk,udl = 1.5 kN/m
Design action due to the variable action UDL, Fd,q,udl
Fd,q,udl = γQ.ULS · Qk.udl = 1.5 × 1.5 =  2.25 kN/m

Total UDL @ ULS = 0.0837 + 1.755 + 2.25 = 4.1 kN/m
Total concentrated action @ ULS = 1.35 kN

5. Modification factors
Factor for medium-duration loading and service class 2, kmod.med = 0.8 (EC5, Table 3.1)
Size factor for depth greater than 150 mm, kh = 1.0 (EC5, equation (3.1))
Lateral stability of the beam: kcrit = 1 (EC5, 6.3.3))
Bearing factor kc,90 = (taken as 1.0) (EC5, clause 6.1.5(2) )
Deformation factor for service class 2, kdef = 0.8 (EC5, Table 3.2)
Load sharing factor, ksys is not relevant ksys = 1.0

(6) Bending strength
The design bending moment;

Md =ql2/8 + PL/4= (4.1 × 2.852)/8 + (1.35 × 2.85)/4 = 4.162 + 0.96 = 5.122 kNm

Design bending stress, σm,y,d = Md/Wy = (5.122 × 106)/( 5 × 105) = 10.244 N/mm2

Design bending strength, fm,y,d = (kmod.med·ksys·kh· fm.k)/γM = (0.8 × 1.0 × 1.0 × 24)/1.3 = 14.77 N/mm2

σm,y,d < fm,y,d   Section is okay in bending

(7) Shear Strength
Design shear force Vd = ql/2 + P/2 = (4.1 × 2.85)/2 + (1.35/2) = 6.52 kN

Design shear stress, τv.d (EC5, equation (6.60))
τv.d = 1.5Vd/bhef = (1.5 × 6.52 × 1000)/(75 × 200) = 0.652 N/mm2

Design shear strength,  fv,d = (kmod.med·ksys· fv.k)/γM = (0.8 × 1.0 × 2.5)/1.3 = 1.54 N/mm2

τv.d < fv,d  Section is okay in shear

(8) Bearing Strength
The design bearing force will equal the design shear force in the beam, Vd

Design bearing stress, σc,90,d  = Vd/b·lb = (6.52 × 1000)/(75 x 100) = 0.833 N/mm2

Design bearing strength, (EC5,equation (6.3)))

fc.90.d = (kmod.med · ksys · kc.90 · fc.90.k)/ γM = (0.8 × 1.0 × 2.5)/1.3 = 1.54 N/mm2

σc,90,d  < fc.90.d  Section is okay in bearing

(9) Deflection

Instantaneous deflection due to permanent actions

Deflection in timber structures

uinst,point,G = (1/4) × [1/(11 × 75 × 2003)] × 28503 × [1 + 1.2 × (11/0.69) × (200/2850)2] = 0.959 mm

Uinst,udl,G = (5/32) × [(1.3 × 10-3 + 0.062 × 10-3)/(11 × 75 × 2003)] × 28504 × [1 + 0.96 × (11/0.69) × (200/2850)2] = 2.287 mm

Uinst.G = uinst,point,G + Uinst,udl,G =  0.959 + 2.287 = 3.246 mm

Instantaneous deflection due to variable action

Deflection in timber due to variable action

Uinst,Q = (5/32) × [(1.5 × 10-3)/(11 × 75 × 2003)] × 28504 × [1 + 0.96 × (11/0.69) × (200/2850)2] = 2.519 mm

Combined permanent and variable instantaneous deflection = uinst = uinst,G + uinst,Q = 3.246 + 2.519 = 5.765 mm

Eurocode 5 limit on deflection (Table 7.2, EC5) winst = l/300 = 2850/300 = 9.5 mm (uinst < winst Instantaneous deflection is okay)

Final deflection
Final deflection due to permanent actions ufin,G = uinst,G (1 + kdef) (Equation 2.3, EC5)
ufin,G = 3.246  (1 + 0.8) = 5.843 mm

Final deflection due to the variable and quasi-permanent actions,  ufin,Q = uinst,Q (1 + ψ2kdef) (Equation 2.4, EC5)
ufin,Q = uinst,Q (1 + ψ2kdef) = 2.519 (1 + 0.3 × 0.8 ) = 3.12 mm

Final deflection due to the permanent and quasi-permanent actions actions
unet,fin = ufin,G + ufin,Q = 5.843 + 3.12 = 8.963 mm

Deflection limit wnet,fin = l/150 = 2850/150 = 19 mm

The deflection of the beam is satisfactory

To download this design article in PDF format, click HERE.

IABSE Postpones 2020 Congress due to COVID-19

By
Ivy Ugorji
-

The International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE) has postponed the IABSE 2020 Congress ChristChurch New Zealand, initially scheduled to hold from 2 – 4 September 2020 to 3 – 5 February 2021 due to the COVID-19 global pandemic.

IABSE is a fellowship of structural engineers operating on a worldwide basis, with interests in all type of structures, in all materials. It acts to improve our knowledge and understanding of the performance of structures. Its members represent structural engineers of all ages, employed in design, academia, construction, regulation and renewal. Many of its members occupy senior roles based on a history of personal achievement.

In a statement released by the IABSE 2020 Congress Organising Committee on their website;

The IABSE 2020 Congress which was supposed to take place on 2 – 4 September 2020 is now rescheduled to take place on February 3-5, 2021. We sincerely hope that this date is far enough in the future that will allow us to have a successful and productive event.

This decision has been taken in consideration of the safety and comfort of all our participants especially those coming from abroad. February is a beautiful time of year to visit New Zealand, with it being summer we encourage you to make a plan to have an extended trip to this side of the world once international travel bookings can commence again.

The registration platform remains open and we encourage you to register as soon as you are in a position to do so. We will extend the early registration deadline out to 2 October 2020 to ensure you don’t miss out on the opportunity to get a discounted rate.

We are currently undertaking the paper review process and this will continue as normal, however authors will receive feedback at a slightly later date than previously advertised. Please refer to www.iabse.org/christchurch2020 for revised dates.

We are looking forward to welcoming you to New Zealand when we’re all in a position to meet again!

In another related event, the IABSE Symposium Wroclaw 2020 which was supposed to take place on 20-22 May 2020 has also been rescheduled to take place on 7-9 October 2020. The Registration Platform has been re-opened, and authors, registered participants will automatically receive updates through mails, newsletters and on their official symposium website at www.iabse.org/Wroclaw2020.

Minimum Area of Steel for Imposed Deformation Cracking

By
Peace Ikpotokin
-

Minimum reinforcement is provided to ensure that yielding does not occur, and by so doing, cracking is adequately controlled in a concrete section. The aim of the calculation is to obtain the minimum area of steel that is required to prevent early thermal cracking in a concrete section, especially for water retaining structures. This minimum area of reinforcement for imposed deformation cracking is different from the minimum area of reinforcement required for actions according to detailing guidelines. The difference lies in the stress distribution factor kc.

Minimum area of reinforcement required for imposed deformation cracking is given in equation (7.1) of in BS EN 1992-1-1.

As,min = kck Act ( fct,eff /fyk)

Where;
kc = A coefficient to account for stress distribution
= 1.0 for pure tension
= 0.4 for pure bending.

When cracking first occurs the cause is usually early thermal effects and the whole section is likely to be in tension, so take kc = 1.0.

k = A coefficient to account for self-equilibrating stresses
= 1.0 for thickness h < 300 mm and 0.65 for h > 800 mm

(interpolation is allowed for thicknesses between 300 mm and 800 mm).

Act = area of concrete in the tension zone just prior to onset of cracking.
Act is determined from section properties but generally for basement slabs and walls is most often based on full thickness of the section.

fct,eff  = fctm = mean tensile strength when cracking may be first expected to occur:

• for early thermal effects 3 days
• for long-term effects, 28 days (which is considered to be a reasonable approximation)

For example, to calculate the tensile strength of C30/37 concrete at t = 3 days using class R cement.

s = 0.20 for Class R cement
t = 3 days;

 βcc(3) = exp{s [1 − √ (28/t)]} = 0.663

fctm for C30 = 2.89 MPa (using the relation fctm = 0.3fck2/3)
fct,eff = fctm = βcc(3)(fctm) = 0.663 × 2.89 = 1.916 Mpa

See Table 1 below for typical values of mean tensile strength at different ages of concrete.

Table 1: Typical values of mean tensile strength of concrete

Typical values of means tensile strength of concrete

Solved Example

Calculate the minimum area of steel required for a concrete slab 400 mm thick against early thermal cracking. The concrete slab is to be done using class N cement (fyk = 500 MPa).

To obtain the value of k, we have to interpolate between for h = 400 mm (between 300 mm and 800 mm)

k = 1 + {(400 – 300)/(800 – 300)] × (0.65 – 1.0) = 0.93

Act = area of concrete within tensile zone
Also note that tensile zone is that part of the section which is calculated to be in tension just before formation of the first crack.

For this example;
kc = 1.0
k = 0.93 (from interpolation)

At 3 days early cracking, fct,eff  = 1.73 MPa (class N cement)
σs = Stress in the reinforcement (fyk) = 500 Mpa
Act = 400 × 1000 = 4 × 105 mm2

Therefore;

As,min = (0.93 × 1.0 × 1.73 × 4 × 105)/500 = 1287 mm2

Provide at each face H12@175 c/c (Asprov = 646 mm2/m)

Total area of steel provided in the section = 2 × 646 = 1292 mm2/m > 1287 mm2    Ok

Note that the provision of minimum reinforcement does not does not guarantee design crack width. Additional calculations will need to be done to calculate the crack width due to early thermal cracking, long term cracking, and flexural cracking.

Vortex Shedding and Wind Load Analysis of Tall Buildings

By
Ubani Obinna
-

In fluid dynamics, a Kármán vortex street is a repeating pattern of swirling vortices caused by the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid around blunt bodies. When wind blows across a structural member such as tall buildings, vortices are shed alternately from one side to the other. This generates alternating low-pressure zones at the downside of the structure giving rise to a fluctuating force acting at right angles to the wind direction. This phenomenon is referred to as vortex shedding.

When a vortex forms on the side of a building, it creates a suction force. The force generated by an individual vortex is not so large but the potential problem is that vortices tend to form in well-organized patterns and rock the building as they shed alternately from each side. A tall building will generate a Kármán vortex street if it has a uniform shape along its height and is in a steady wind—that is, one with little turbulence. Therefore, for tall buildings that are isolated or very tall, vortex shedding must be accounted for in the design.

Vortex shedding
Vortices can form coherently on the sides of a building
buffeted by steady winds, exert alternating forces on the
structure (black arrows), and, once detached, form a so-called
Kármán street downwind of the building (Irwin, 2010).
Vortex shedding across a cylinder
Vortex Shedding phenomenon induced by wind flowing over a cylinder (Giosan, 2005)

In the evaluation of tall buildings against vortex shedding, one needs to ascertain the natural frequency of vibration of the tall building fb, and the frequency with which vortices are shed from the building into the vortex street fv. When these two frequencies are equal, resonance sets in and the building experiences large cross wind oscillations.

A building’s fundamental frequency depends on its structural system and mass distribution, and structural designers of large buildings typically use specialized software to help them accurately compute that frequency (see video example of determination of natural frequency of a multi-storey building using Staad Pro). For a 50-story building, fb is typically about 0.2 Hz, corresponding to a period of 5 seconds. For a 100-story building, fb is in the range of 0.1– 0.125 Hz, corresponding to a period of 8–10 seconds, but some super-tall structures have been conceived for which the frequency is as low as 0.05 Hz, corresponding to a 20-second period (Irwin, 2010).

The frequency of vortex shedding is given by the Strouhal relationship;

fv = SU/w

where;
U is the wind speed,
w is the width of the building that faces the wind, and
S is the Strouhal number, which is often treated as a constant that depends on only the cross-sectional shape of the building.

With this relationship, the critical wind speed at which at which fb = fv can be calculated.

Reducing the effects of vortex shedding

One of the ways of reducing the action caused by vortex shedding is to stiffen the building. This increases the natural frequency of the building, and subsequently increases the critical wind speed at which resonance can occur. However, increasing the stiffness can work in buildings that are not too tall, but for mega tall buildings, other strategies should be adopted to minimise cost.

Another way of reducing the effect of vortex shedding is to interrupt coherent shedding in the building under the effect of wind. One technique is to have the structure’s cross section vary with building height. Then w and S also change with building height, which makes fv a function of height as well. As a result, the wind “becomes confused” and vortices lose their coherence. This was used in the world’s tallest building, Burj Khalifa.

Burj Khalifa
Burj Khalifa

Other effective shaping strategies are softening sharp corners, creating openings in the building for the wind to bleed through, and adding spoilers that break up the vortices much as do the spiral bands, or strakes, seen on many chimney stacks.

A complementary strategy for controlling the response to vortex excitation is to draw the energy out of the building’s crosswind oscillations with special damping systems.

References
(1) Irwin P. A. (2010): Vortices and tall buildings: A recipe for resonance. American Institute of Physics, S-0031-9228-1009-350-6

(2) Giosan, 2005: Vortex shedding induced load on free standing structures. Structural vortex shedding estimation methodology and finite element simulation. Downloaded from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.582.3179&rep=rep1&type=pdf (Assessed on 20th February, 2019)

Waste Tyres can Improve the Seismic Performance of Integral Abutment Bridges

By
Ubani Obinna
-

Reuse of about 1.5 billion waste tyres that are produced annually worldwide inspired this research on the behaviour of rubberised backfills for integral abutment of bridges under seismic action. The joint research was carried out by authors from the School of Engineering, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki Greece; Energy Management Division, Siemens A.G., Erlangen, Germany; and Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK, and was published by the Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering (Springer).

The research was conducted on the basis of parametric analysis, which aimed to evaluate the influence of different rubber-soil mixtures on the dynamic response of the abutment backfill system under various seismic excitations, accounting for dynamic soil-abutment interaction. Previous research has shown that the use of rubber-soil mixtures is a beneficial solution for foundations, embankments, backfilling in retaining walls, and other geotechnical works.

In the research, three different backfill materials were examined; the conventional, as per the representative backfilling material, which is common in European bridges, and two rubber-soil mixtures with varying percentage of rubber content. The conventional backfill is non-cohesive soil comprising of dry river sand.

The rubberised soil comprised of sand and recycled rubber in varying proportions per weight. The rubber content is in the form of granulated rubber produced by mechanically shredded waste tyres. Mixtures of composition 90% sand and 10% rubber (referred here as 90–10) or 70 % sand and 30 % rubber (referred here as 70–30) by weight were considered in the study.

A numerical integral abutment bridge model was modelled on Plaxis software and subjected to seismic action according to Eurocode 8.

Some of the improvements observed obtained are as follows;

(1) When compared with a conventional backfill, the settlements were reduced on average by 50% – 55%.

(2) The displacement of the abutment, and therefore the loading and stresses introduced to the prestressed deck was successfully reduced when rubberised backfills were used in comparison to the displacements of the conventional one. On average, it was reduced by about 8 % in the backfill 90–10 and by 18 % in the backfill 70–30.

(3) Similarly, the residual horizontal displacement of the top of the abutment was effectively reduced by 20 % in the backfill 90–10 and by 43 % in the backfill 70–30.

(4) The pressures acting on the abutment were dependent on the rubber content of the backfill, as an average reduction of 31 and 47 % was observed for the backfills 90–10 and 70–30, respectively, against the soil pressures calculated for the conventional scheme.

(5) The analyses showed that the internal forces of the abutment do not change significantly when the rubberized backfills were applied with respect to the conventional backfill.

However, the dynamic response of the abutment is a complicated mechanism that includes material and geometrical non-linearities, thus, analysis of the entire bridge system with the backfill soil should be conducted to better understand the behavior of integral abutment bridges.

For the full research paper;

Argyroudis S., Palaiochorinou A., Mitoulis S., Pitilakis D. (2016): Use of rubberised backfills for improving the seismic response of integral abutment bridges. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering (2016) 14:3573–3590. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-016-0018-1

For more information on the work of the authors in providing innovative solutions for building resilience into critical infrastructure toward sustainable development. Visit their website INSFRASTRUCTURESILIENCE

Design for Fensheng 101 Skyscraper Unveiled

By
Ivy Ugorji
-

The design for the Fensheng 101 Skyscraper has been unveiled by GWP Architects. The project has a total construction area of approximately 81,000 square meters and a height of 200 meters. Located next to Lixin Avenue in Zengcheng, Guangzhou the building has been imagined to be a mixed development comprising of hotels, offices, apartments, and commercial stores. The north side overlooks Nanxiang Mountain and the south side overlooks Guangzhou Pearl River New City.

GWP5

The architectural concept of the building has been inspired by the image of sailing. The shape is generated with the core of the building as the axis, divided into two parts from north to south. Down the trend, it lightly fell on the podium to form a canopy space, cleverly integrated the podium and the tower of the building, and dotted the city’s skyline in a natural and organic form. With a shape demonstrating stability and wind resistance, the curved façade and roof also save the whole building a great deal of structural cost compared to the traditional tower structure.

GWP1

“The building introduces the concept of riding with the wind and sailing. Integrating form, space experience, ventilation, and lighting to create a unique architectural aesthetic. It aims to bring locals the joy of space perception and spiritual inspiration, as well as a sense of belonging to the place they live and work,” said Zhang Guowei, Chief Architect of FengSheng 101, GWP Partner.

GWP2

Structural Concept

The structural design of the building has been fully integrated with its elegant form, and was designed by RBS Architectural Engineering Design Associates. The building has two supporting blocks and a central core. With a precise control of the aspect ratio of the building and the core, the structural stability and wind resistance is enhanced. The curved facade and roof not only effectively reduces the wind load of the high-rise, but also saves the whole building a great deal of structure cost through improved aerodynamics.

GWP3

Building Facts

Official Name – Fengsheng 101
Name of Complex – Fengsheng 101
Structure Type – Building
Status – Under Construction
Country – China
City – Guangzhou
Street Address & Map – Lixin Highway, Zengcheng
Building Function – hotel / office
Construction – Start 2019
Completion – 2022

Architect Design – GWP Architects
Architect of Record – Mobozhi Architecture Design Inc.
Structural Engineer Design – RBS Architectural Engineering Design Associates
Project Manager – Guangzhou Wangtat Project Management & Consultant Co. Ltd.
Main Contractor – China Construction Second Engineering Bureau Ltd.


Other Consultants
• Civil AECOM
• Marketing InterContinental Hotels Group

Disclaimer: All images here are copyright properties of GWP Architects

Definition of a Tall Building | High-Rise Building

By
Ubani Obinna
-

The term ‘tall building’ is relative to the environment under consideration. A four-storey building located among bungalows in an area will easily be described as a tall building in the neighbourhood, and it will be an unarguable assertion. It is like the case of a one-eyed man being a king in the land of the blind.

According to Bungale (1988, 2010), tall buildings cannot be defined in terms of any specific number of floors or storey height, but the dividing line should be where the design of the structure moves from the field of statics to structural dynamics.

Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (2016) defined a building as being a high rise when it is considerably higher than the surrounding buildings or its proportion is slender enough to give the appearance of a tall building.

It is very typical for town planning agencies of municipals, regulatory bodies, standards organisations, and communities to come up with definitions and guidelines on what constitutes a high rise building in their jurisdictions.

For instance, the Tall Building Guidelines of the Town of Milton (2018), Canada, defined a tall building as a building whose height is greater than the adjacent street right of way or the wider of two streets if the building is located at an intersection. The right of way widths in Milton includes 35 m Arterials and 47 m Regional Roads, which means that tall buildings will start at about 11 storeys. But the guideline document acknowledges that a building of 9 storeys will be considered relatively tall, and hence the tall building guidelines should be applied wherever the building appears tall in relation to its context.

Old Oak and Park Royal Development Corporation (OPDC, 2018) in London defined a tall building as a building that is above 48 m (say 15 storeys) above the ground level.

The City of Burlington (2017) in Canada defined a tall building as building with over 11 storeys.

In Russia, tall buildings are those which are at least 75 m high (Generalov et al., 2018).

According to CTBUH, buildings of 300 to 600 meters are recognized as Supertall Skyscrapers, and those over 600 meters are recognized as Megatall Skyscrapers.

The National Building Code of India (2005) defined a high-rise building as a building having a height of more than 15 m (about 5 storey building).

There is no definition or guidance for high-rise or tall building in the National Building Code of Nigeria (2006). Lagos State Urban and Regional Planning Development Law (LSURPD, 2005) defined a high-rise building as a building with more than five floors (including the ground floor) and/or whose height exceeds 12 m from the ground level.

Summarily, according to Czyńska (2018);

“There is no unambiguous definition of the tall building (skyscraper) in the world. In the US, a skyscraper is considered to be a building exceeding the height of 150 m; in many European countries, this height is much smaller – 35 m. In Poland, technical regulations define two types of tall buildings: high ones (from 25 to 55 m), and high-rise buildings (55 m above the ground level). … a tall building is one that dominates in the landscape through its scale – so it does not have to be significantly high, but it is clearly above the surrounding buildings”.

Czyńska (2018)

From structural engineering perspective, a building can be described as a tall building as soon as the effects of lateral forces start getting significant on the behaviour and stability of the structure (Islam and Islam, 2014).

In a view shared by numerous authors (Bungale, 1988; Hoogendoorn, 2009; Bungale, 2010; Ali and Hamed, 2011; Carpinteri et al., 2012; Aly and Abburu, 2015; Longarini et al., 2017), as a building increases in its height, the forces of nature like wind and earthquake begin to dominate the structural systems, and impact on the structural behaviour of the building more than gravity forces.

Hence, engineers are concerned about choosing and designing structural systems that will be able to resist lateral and gravity loads, and at the same time meet other serviceability requirements of high rise buildings.

References

Ali B., and Hamed N. (2011): Loading pattern and spatial distribution of dynamic wind load and comparison of wind and earthquake effects along the heights of tall buildings. Proceedings to the 8th International Conference on Structural Dynamics, Leuven Belgium

Aly M.M., and Abburu S. (2015): On the design of high-rise buildings for multi-hazard: Fundamental differences between wind and earthquake demands. Hindawi – Shock and Vibrations (2015) Article ID 148681

Bungale S. T. (1988): Structural Analysis and Design of Tall Buildings. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York

Bungale S. T. (2010): Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group

Carpinteri A., Corrado M. , Laadogna G., and Cammarano S. (2012): Lateral load effects of tall shear wall structures of different heights. Structural Engineering and Mechanics 41(3):313-321

CTBUH – Council of Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat

Czynska K. (2018): A brief history of tall buildings in the context of cityscape transformation in Europe. Space and Form (36):281-296

Generalov V.P., Kalinkina N.A., and Zhadanova I.V. (2018): Typological diversity of tall buildings and complexes in relation to their functional structure. E35 Web of Conferences (33):1-8

Hoogendoorn P.P (2009): Lateral load design of tall buildings: Evaluation and comparison for tall buildings in Madrid, Spain. M.Sc thesis presented to the Department of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology

Islam S., Islam M.M. (2014): Analysis on the structural systems for dripft control of tall buildings due to wind load: Critical investigations on building heights. The AUST Journal of Science and Technology 5(2):84-89

Lagos State Physical Planning and Development Regulations (2005): Lagos State Urban and Regional Planning Law. L.S.L.N. No 7

Longarini N., Cabras L., Zucca N., Chapain S., Aly A. M. (2017): Structural improvements for tall buildings under wind loads: Comparative study. Hindawi – Shock and Vibrations (2017) Article ID 2031248

National Building Code of India (2005) – Bureau of Indian Standards

National Building Code (2006): Federal Republic of Nigeria

ICE Announces Free Online Lecture Series for Members and Public

By
Ubani Obinna
-

The Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE), UK, has announced plans to commence free online lectures for members and general public. According to the information released on their website, the online lecture series is being launched to promote discussion of important challenges and issues facing civil engineers and the infrastructure sector.

It will be part of the ICE Strategy Sessions, a programme of free online lectures and events which bring together experts and industry leaders to discuss those thought leadership challenges.

The ICE Strategy Sessions will kick off on 21 April, with a lecture that considers whether civil engineers are doing enough to assure the public that the infrastructure they use is safe. Future events of the programme will explore how infrastructure can help achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and the role of the future engineer.

ICE will team up with global infrastructure software and solutions provider Bentley Systems to deliver the series, which is free to both the public and members. Using Bentley’s digital platform, the events will allow audiences to interact and ask questions in real-time. Audiences will also have access to a range of additional resources via ICE’s website.

First Event: Reassuring the public that infrastructure is safe
Date: 21 April, 2020
Time: 09:00 – 10:30 (UK time)

Key Speakers:
Dame Judith Hackitt
Government’s Independent Advisor on Tall Building Safety

Hazel McDonald
Chief Bridge Engineer at Transport Scotland

Julie Bregulla
Director of Fire & Building Technology at BRE

Speakers will present live and be followed by a live Q&A discussion.

To book your place at the event, click HERE

Reputable Journals in Geotechnical Engineering

By
Ubani Obinna
-

Geotechnical engineering is the application of engineering principles to the acquisition, interpretation, and use of knowledge of materials of the Earth’s crust and earth materials for the solution of engineering problems and the design of engineering works. It is concerned with the analysis, design and construction of foundations, slopes, retaining structures, embankments, tunnels, levees, wharves, landfills and other systems that are made of or are supported by soil or rock.

Knowledge in the field of geotechnical engineering is advanced through research publications in academic journals. Find below the list of reputable peer reviewed journals where you can publish your findings in the field of geotechnical engineering. This list is in no specified ranking order and will be updated/improved from time to time.

(A) CANADA
(1) Canadian Geotechnical Journal – (Canadian Publishing Science) – (Q1, Impact factor = 2.437, H Index = 100) https://www.nrcresearchpress.com/journal/cgj

(2) Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering – (Canadian Publishing Science) – (Q2, Impact factor = 0.742, H Index = 53)
https://www.nrcresearchpress.com/journal/cjce

(B) JAPAN
(3) Journal of JSCE – (Japan Society of Civil Engineers)
https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/journalofjsce/-char/en

(C) SPRINGER
(4) International Journal of Civil Engineering (Iranian Society of Civil Engineering) – (Q2, Impact factor = 0.624, H Index = 17)
https://link.springer.com/journal/40999

(5) Geotechnical and Geological Engineering Journal (Q1, H Index = 45)
https://link.springer.com/journal/10706

(6) International Journal of Geosynthetics and Ground Engineering
https://link.springer.com/journal/40891

(7) Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
https://link.springer.com/journal/42107

(8) Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India): Series A (Q2, H Index = 7)
https://link.springer.com/journal/40030

(9) Materials and Structures – Springer (Q1, Impact factor 2.458, H Index = 80)
https://link.springer.com/journal/11527

(10) KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering (Korean Society of Civil Engineers) – (Q2, H Index = 26)
https://link.springer.com/journal/12205

(11) Transportation in Developing Economies – Springer
https://link.springer.com/journal/40890

(12) Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering – Springer (Impact factor = 4.100)
https://link.springer.com/journal/603

(13) Acta Geotechnica – Springer (Impact factor = 3.247)
https://link.springer.com/journal/11440

(14) Granular Matter – Springer
https://link.springer.com/journal/10035

(15) Bulletin of the Engineering Geology and the Environment (International Association of Engineering Geology and the Environment) – (formerly published as Bulletin of the International Association of Engineering Geology) Impact factor = 2.138
https://link.springer.com/journal/10064

(16) Transport in Porous Media – Springer (Impact factor = 1.997)
https://link.springer.com/journal/11242

(17) Transportation Infrastructure Geotechnology – Springer
https://link.springer.com/journal/40515

(18) International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology – Springer
https://www.springer.com/engineering/civil+engineering/journal/42947

(19) Innovative Infrastructure Solutions – Springer
https://link.springer.com/journal/41062

(20) Journal of Infrastructure Preservation and Resilience – Springer
https://jipr.springeropen.com/

(21) International Journal of Geo-engineering – Springer
https://link.springer.com/journal/40703

(22) Indian Geotechnical Journal – Springer
https://link.springer.com/journal/40098

(23) Frontiers of Structural and Civil Engineering – Springer (Impact factor = 1.272)
https://link.springer.com/journal/11709

(24) Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration – Springer (Impacct factor = 1.050)
https://link.springer.com/journal/11803

(25) Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering – Springer (Impact factor = 0.376)
https://link.springer.com/journal/11204

(D) ASCE – American Society of Civil Engineers

(26) Journal of Construction Engineering and Management – ASCE
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jcemd4

(27) Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering – ASCE
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jmcee7

(28) Journal of Composites for Construction – ASCE
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jccof2

(29) Journal of Highway and Transportation Research and Development – ASCE
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jhtrcq

(30) Journal of Environmental Engineering – ASCE
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/joeedu

(31) Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering – ASCE
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jggefk

(32) Journal of Transportation Engineering – ASCE
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jtepbs

(33) International Journal of Geomechanics – ASCE
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/ijgnai

(34) Journal of Engineering Mechanics – ASCE
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jenmdt

(E) TAYLOR AND FRANCIS ONLINE

(35) Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal – T&Fonline (Impact factor = 0.992)
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/bssc20/current

(36) Civil Engineering and Environmental Systems – T&Fonline (Impact factor =1.394)
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/gcee20/current

(37) International Journal of Pavement Engineering – T&Fonline (Impact factor = 2.298)
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/gpav20/current

(38) Structure and Infrastructure Engineering – T&Fonline (Impact factor = 2.430)
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/nsie20/current

(39) Journal of Civil Engineering and Management – T&Fonline
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tcem20/current

(40) European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering – T&Fonline (Impact factor = 1.873)
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tece20/current

(41) Geomechanics and Geoengineering – T&Fonline
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tgeo20/current

(42) Road, Materials, and Pavement Design – T&Fonline (Impact factor = 1.980)
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/trmp20/current

(43) Journal of Sustainable Cement Based Materials – T&Fonline
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tscm20/current

(45) International Journal of Sustainable Engineering – T&Fonline
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tsue20/current

(46) International Journal of Sustainable Transportation – T&Fonline (Impact factor = 2.586)
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ujst20/current

(47) International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering – T&Fonline
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/yjge20/current

(48) Australian Journal of Civil Engineering – T&Fonline
https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tcen20

(F) ELSEVIER
(49) International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology – (Has been transferred to Springer Nature)
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/international-journal-of-pavement-research-and-technology

(50) Case Studies in Construction Materials – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/case-studies-in-construction-materials

(51) Sustainable Cities and Society – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/sustainable-cities-and-society

(52) International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/international-journal-of-rock-mechanics-and-mining-sciences

(53) Cement and Concrete Composites – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/cement-and-concrete-composites

(54) Construction and Building Materials – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/construction-and-building-materials

(55) Journal of Terramechanics – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-terramechanics

(56) Transportation Geotechnics – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/transportation-geotechnics

(57) Geotextiles and Geomembranes – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/geotextiles-and-geomembranes

(58) Computers and Geotechnics – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/computers-and-geotechnics

(59) Soils and Foundations (Japanese Geotechnical Society) – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/soils-and-foundations

(60) Engineering Geology – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/engineering-geology

(61) Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-rock-mechanics-and-geotechnical-engineering/

(62) Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering – Elsevier
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/soil-dynamics-and-earthquake-engineering

(G) INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS (ICE, UK)

(63) Environmental Geotechnics – ICE, UK
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jenge/current

(64) Geosynthetics International – ICE, UK
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jgein/current

(65) Geotechnical Research – ICE, UK
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jgere/current

(66) Géotechnique – ICE, UK
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jgeot/current

(67) Géotechnique Letters – ICE, UK
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jgele/current

(68) International Journal of Physical Modelling in Geotechnics – ICE, UK
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jphmg/current

(69) Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science – ICE, UK
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jenes/current

(70) Proceedings of the ICE – Geotechnical Engineering
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jgeen/current

(71) Proceedings of the ICE – Ground Improvement
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jgrim/current

(72) Proceedings of the ICE – Municipal Engineer
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jmuen/current

(73) Proceedings of the ICE – Municipal Engineer
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jmuen/current

(74) Proceedings of the ICE – Engineering and Computational Mechanics
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jencm/current

(75) Proceedings of the ICE – Engineering Sustainability
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jensu/current

(76) Proceedings of the ICE – Waste and Resource Management
https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/toc/jwarm/current

(H) ASTM INTERNATIONAL JOURNALS
(77) Advances in Civil Engineering Materials (ACEM) – ASTM International
https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/JOURNALS/ACEM/index.html

(78) Geotechnical Testing Journal – ASTM International
https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/JOURNALS/GEOTECH/index.html

(79) Journal of Testing and Evaluation – ASTM International
https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/JOURNALS/TESTEVAL/index.html

(80) Materials Performance and Characterization – ASTM International
https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/JOURNALS/MPC/index.html

(I) INDERSCIENCE PUBLISHERS

(81) International Journal of Sustainable Materials and Structural Systems – Inderscience Publishers
https://www.inderscience.com/jhome.php?jcode=ijsmss

(82) International Journal of Microstructures and Material Properties – Inderscience Publishers
https://www.inderscience.com/jhome.php?jcode=ijmmp

(83) International Journal of Materials and Structural Integrity – Inderscience Publishers
https://www.inderscience.com/jhome.php?jcode=ijmsi

(84) International Journal of Materials Engineering Innovation – Inderscience Publishers
https://www.inderscience.com/jhome.php?jcode=ijmatei

(85) International Journal of Waste Management and Environment – Inderscience Publishers
https://www.inderscience.com/jhome.php?jcode=ijewm

(J) HINDAWI

(86) Advances in Civil Engineering – Hindawi
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ace/

(87) Advances in Materials Science and Engineering – Hindawi
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/amse/

(K) WILEY ONLINE LIBRARY

(88) International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics – Wiley Online

(89) Geomechanics and Tunnelling – Wiley Online

(90) Geotechnik – Wiley Online

(91) Near Surface Geophysics – Wiley Online

(92) Civil Engineering Design – Wiley Online

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