When a structure is acted upon by a force, it undergoes deformation which increases gradually. During the process of deformation, the material of the structure develops some resistance against the deformation. When the material of the structure takes over the influence of the load, the structure becomes stable. The internal resistance which the body develops against the load is referred to as stress. When the configuration of the body cannot resist deformation, it is called a mechanism and no longer a structure.
Types of stresses:
Direct stress (a) Tension (b) Compression (c) Shear
Indirect Stress (a) Bending (b) Torsion
Combined stress Possible combinations of 1 and 2 above.
Internal Stresses
Let us consider a straight two–force member in tension that is shown in Figure 1 below.
Fig 1: Axial force in a straight bar
We know that for the member in Figure 1(a) to be at equilibrium, the forces P and –P must be directed along AB in opposite direction and have the same magnitude P. If we cut the member at point C, and if equilibrium must be maintained, we must apply at CA a force P which is equal and opposite to –P, and to CB a force –P which must be equal and opposite to P. Since the member was at equilibrium before the member was cut, internal forces equivalent to these new forces must have existed. This internal force is the axial force in the member.
If we consider the frame that is loaded in Figure 2(a) as shown below;
Fig 2: Internal stresses in a frame
When we cut a section at point K between member BC (Figure 2a) and consider the free body diagram of section KC (Figure 2c), we will realise that for the body to be at equilibrium, the following conditions must be met;
Application of a force Q at K which is equal and opposite of the force P
Application of the force N at K which is equal and opposite of the force S
Application of a moment M at K to balance the moment of P about K
We again, therefore, conclude that the forces must have existed in the member before the section was cut. The force Q is called the shear force, the force N is called the axial force, and moment M is called the bending moment at point K. The knowledge of these internal stresses is so important that in any given structure, we can use it to determine the critical stress in any section, so as to use it to compare with the permissible stress of the material of the structure before failure occurs. It is also necessary when we compute the deformations at any point in the beam, so as to satisfy the requirements for the effective functionality of the structure (serviceability requirements).
Even though real life structural problems are subjected to various and complex systems of loading, the internal forces induced are usually in form of any of the following:
Shearing forces
Bending moments
Axial forces
Torsion
Shear Forces
When a beam which is in a state equilibrium and subjected to a system of static loading is cut at a section X from the left, it is still expected that the section cut remains at equilibrium, which means that a force must act at the section that is cut. Before the section is cut, this force is provided by the adjacent material in the beam section; hence it acts tangentially to the section from which it is cut.
To ascertain the value of this force, all we need to do is to add up the algebraic value of the forces acting from the left to the point where the section is cut. Internal forces acting tangentially at sections of a beam in equilibrium are known as the shear forces.
Fig 3: Illustration of shear force in a beam
The shear force at section x-x of the beam loaded as shown in figure 3(a) is simply given by the summation of all the vertical forces acting just to the left of the section. In this case, it is denoted by Qx which is the force that balances all the external loads acting to the left of the structure;
Qx is given by; Qx = Ay – P1 – P2
Bending Moment
Bending moment is defined as the rotational tendency of a force. It is basically given by the force, multiplied by the perpendicular distance. If we still consider the equilibrium at the left of the section we cut from the beam, we will still discover that there will be no resultant moment.
In other words, there will be a moment that will balance the bending moments produced by the other forces if the system is to remain at equilibrium. This is the bending moment of the beam at section X and will have the same value, whether you decide to come from the left or the right of the beam system. Always note that moment is maximum where the value of the shear force is equal to zero.
Fig 4: Illustration of bending moment in a beam
The bending moment is given by the algebraic sum of the moment that is acting just to the left or to the right of the section. Coming from the left of the structure, it is given by;
Mx = (Ay × x) – P1(x – L1) – P2[x – (L1 + L2)]
The value of bending moment in a structure can be negative or positive. When the value of the bending moment is positive, it is said to be a sagging moment and it implies that the beam is in tension in the lower fibre of the material. Otherwise, when it is negative, it is a hogging moment and the tension zone is in the upper fibre of the material (See Figure 5 below).
Fig 5: Illustration of sagging and hogging on a beam element
Axial Forces
Axial loads are loads that are applied along the longitudinal or centroidal axis of the member. These loads are common in trusses, columns, and stanchions, and are sometimes accompanied by some rotation and moment due to the eccentricity of the load or from another external load.
Fig 6: Axial pull on a cantilever beam
When the load causes extension in the length of the member, it is called a tensile axial force, and when it causes decrement in length, it is a compressive force. The loads on columns and stanchions are usually compressive.
Torsion
Torsion is very much like a torque that is applied to a beam structure. In other words, torsional stresses produce a kind of twisting effect on the structure. In real-life problems, it is not normally necessary to design for torsion in reinforced concrete structures, since adequate resistance is provided by the nominal shear reinforcements. However, in some structures such as roof gutter or beams supporting canopy slabs, it is necessary to design the beam to resist torsion. In the diagram shown below (Figure 7), the primary beam can be designed to resist torsion T and a point load P.
Fig 7: Torsion on a cantilever beam
Relationship between load, bending moment, and shear force
When a beam is subjected to an arbitrary system of loading, its analysis is facilitated if certain relations exist between the applied load, and the internal stresses.
Fig 8: Relationship between force, bending moment, and shear force in a beam
Let us consider a beam AB that is carrying a distributed load as shown in figure 8(a). Let CC’ be two points on the beam at a distance ∆x from each other. The shear force and bending moment at C is denoted by Q and M respectively and at point C’ by Q + ∆Q and M + ∆M. Let us now detach points CC’ and draw the free body diagram as shown in figure 8(b).
Let the summation of the vertical forces be equal to zero. ∑Fy = 0
Then we have; Q – (Q + ∆Q) – q∆x = 0 ∆Q = – q∆x; Dividing both sides by ∆x and in the limit allowing ∆x to go to zero, we obtain;
dQ/dx = -q —– (1)
Equation (1) indicates that for a beam loaded as shown in figure 8, the slope of dQ/dx is negative. The equation is valid for only distributed loads, for concentrated loads, the formula is not valid. The absolute value of the gradient at any point is equal to the load per unit length.
Integrating equation (1) between points C and B, we obtain;
QB – QC = -∫q dx —— (2) This implies that the load between B and C is equal to the area under the load curve between points B and C.
When we consider the sum of the moment for the free body diagram at figure 8(b);
Let the summation of the moment about C’ be equal to zero.
Dividing both sides by ∆x and let ∆x go to zero in the limits;
We obtain; dM/dx = Q —— (3)
Equation (3) shows that the derivative of the bending moment equation yields the equation for the shear force. This is valid for both when concentrated and distributed load is applied on the beam under consideration.
The plate load test or ‘plate bearing test’ is one of the quickest ways of determining the bearing capacity and settlement characteristics of soils on site. This test is essentially useful especially for the design of shallow foundations such as pad footings.
It basically consists of loading a rigid plate at the foundation level and increasing the load in arbitrary increments. The settlement corresponding to each load increment is recorded using at least two or three dial gauges with a least count of 0.02 mm. The gauges should be placed separately at 120° or 90° respectively. The test load is gradually increased till the plate starts to settle at a rapid rate. The load-settlement curve is plotted from which the settlement and bearing capacity of the soil can be determined.
The total value of the load on the plate divided by the area of the steel plate gives the value of the ultimate bearing capacity of soil. A factor of safety is applied to give the safe bearing capacity of soil.
The apparatus required for carrying out a plate load test are;
Counterweight such as box or platform with heavy material such as concrete, steel, etc. The total counterweight should be at least 10% greater than the anticipated maximum test load.
Hydraulic jack for applying the load
Proving ring, 1 kg accuracy, for measuring the load
Bearing Plate, 350mm, 450mm, and 600mm diameter
Four dial gauges
Reference beams.
Typical plate load test set up (Venkatramaiah, 2006)
The procedure for carrying out plate load test according to BS 1377 part 9 are as follows;
A circular plate having a maximum diameter of 300 – 600mm shall be used.
Excavate to the test level as quickly as possible to minimise the effects of stress relief, particularly in cohesive fills. A mechanical excavator may be used provided that the excavator bucket does not have teeth and the last 100mm depth of excavation is carried out carefully by hand. If the test is performed in a test pit, the width of the pit should be at least 4 to 5 times of plate diameter.
Carefully trim off and remove all loose material and any embedded fragments so that the area for the plate is generally level and as undisturbed as possible.
Protect the test area and the apparatus from moisture changes, sunlight, and the effects of adverse weather as soon as the test level is exposed and throughout the test.
The plate shall be placed on a thin layer (10 to 15 mm thick) of clean dry sand to produce a level surface on which to bed the plate.
Set up the loading and deflection, measuring systems so that the load is applied to the plate without eccentricity and the deflection system is outside the zone of influence of the attachments. During these operations a small seating load may be applied to the plate to enable adjustments to be made: this seating load shall be less than 5 kN/m2.
The load shall be applied in five increments. Settlement reading will be taken at 0.50 minute intervals for the first 2 minutes, and 1 minutes intervals thereafter, until the detectable movement of the plate has stopped, i.e. until the average settlement rate is less than 0.02 mm per 5 minute interval.
At each increment, the pressure shall be maintained as near as possible constant.
After the final test increment has been completed, the pressure in the hydraulic pump shall then be released and the settlement of the plate allowed to recover. When the recovery is essentially complete, the residual settlement value shall be recorded.
According to Venkatramiah (2006), great care shall be taken when interpreting the results from plate load test load-settlement curves. Typical curves obtained from load-settlement curves of plate load tests are shown in the figure below;
Typical load-settlement curves from plate load tests (Venkatramaiah, 2006)
Curve I is typical of dense sand or gravel or stiff clay, wherein general shear failure occurs. The point corresponding to failure is obtained by extrapolating backward (as shown in the figure), as a pronounced departure from the straight-line relationship that applies to the initial stages of loading is observed. (This coincides approximately with the point up to which the range of proportionality extends).
Curve II is typical of loose sand or soft clay, wherein local shear failure occurs. Continuous steepening of the curve is observed and it is rather difficult to pinpoint failure; however, the point where the curve becomes suddenly steep is located and treated as that corresponding to failure.
Curve III is typical of many c – φ soils which exhibit characteristics intermediate between the above two. Here also the failure point is not easy to locate and the same criterion as in the case of Curve II is applied.
Thus, it is seen that, except in a few cases, arbitrary location of failure point becomes inevitable in the interpretation of load test results.
However, it is important to know that the plate load test has some drawbacks such as size effects, and does not take into account the possibility of consolidation settlement, especially in cohesive soils. Furthermore, it is reported that the load test results reflect the characteristics of the soil located only within a depth of about twice the width of the plate.
In this article we are going to show how to make computations from plate load test.
Example A plate load test was conducted on a uniform deposit of sand at a depth of 1.5m below the natural ground level and the following data were obtained;
Pressure (kPa)
0
50
100
200
300
400
500
Settlement (mm)
0
2
4.5
10
17
30
50
The size of the plate was 600 mm × 600 mm and that of the pit 3.0 m × 3.0 m × 1.5 m. (i) Plot the pressure-settlement curve and determine the failure stress. (ii) A square footing, 1.5m × 1.5 m, is to be founded at 1.5 m depth in this soil.
Assuming the factor of safety against shear failure as 3.0 and the maximum permissible settlement as 25 mm, determine the allowable bearing pressure.
(iii) Design of footing for a load of 600 kN, if the water table is at a great depth.
Solution (1) The pressure-settlement curve is shown in the figure below. The failure point is obtained as the point corresponding to the intersection of the initial and final tangents. In this case, the failure pressure is 335 kN/m2.
The ultimate bearing capacity from the plate load test qult,bp = 335 kN/m2
Applying correction for sandy soil deposit and a footing of width 1.5m; qult,f = qult,bp x (Width of foundation)/(Size of the base plate) = 335 x (1.5/0.6) = 837.5 kN/m2
Applying a factor of safety of 3.0 against shear failure; qa = qult,f/FOS = 837.5/3 = 279.16 kN/m2
Alternatively; Equate the value of qult,bp to 0.5γbpNγ
Where; bp = size of the base plate = 600 mm γ = density of soil (say 18.5 kN/m3) Nγ = Bearing capacity factor (to be determined)
335 = 0.5 x 18.5 x 0.6 x Nγ On solving, Nγ = 60.36 This reflects to an angle of internal friction (Φ) of about 36.5° using Terzaghi’s theory. The corresponding value of Nq is 50.48.
For a square footing of width (B) and depth (Df) 1.5m founded on sand;
qult = qNq + 0.4γBNγ = (18.5 x 50.48) + (0.4 x 18 x 1.5 x 60.36) = 1585.768 kN/m2 qa = qult/FOS = 1585.768/3 = 528.589 kN/m2
From the load settlement curve, this settlement corresponds to a pressure of 290 kN/m2
For this particular case study, settlement will govern the design.
The maximum allowable service column load on a 1.5m x 1.5 m square pad footing will therefore be (1.5 x 1.5 x 290) = 652.5 kN. This shows that a column load of 600 kN can be safely supported on a footing of 1.5 m x 1.5m on the soil.
References (1) BS 1377-9:1990 – Methods for test for soils for civil engineering purposes – In-situ tests. British Standard Institution (2) Venkatramaiah C. (2006): Geotechnical Engineering (3rd Edition). New Age Publishers, New Delhi, India
Structural engineering is an aspect of civil engineering that is concerned with the conceptualisation, modelling, design, and verification of engineering structures such as buildings, bridges, towers, etc for stability and satisfactory performance under the action of direct and indirect forces. Generally, the stability of man-made structures is the primary responsibility of a structural engineer.
However, the duties of a structural engineer extend way beyond the definition given above. This is because there are so many parts to the development of a structure that goes beyond conceptualisation and design. For instance, a structural engineer is also concerned about the materials to be utilized in a construction project and may go out of his way to develop new products or modify existing ones in order to obtain the desired result.
A structural engineer is also a manager who must take into account the availability of resources, and how best to utilize them in a safe, economical, and efficient manner. Whenever you see an output of a structural engineer, it is not just a sequence of lines and curves on a piece of paper or computer model, but a combination of constructive thinking, data processing, intricate piece of mathematics, physical sciences, environmental sciences, safety considerations, economics, and arts. A structural engineer combines different fields of arts and sciences in order to reach his goal.
A typical structural engineering model of a building
The field of structural engineering is vast, developed, challenging, and interesting. A structural engineer is a highly technical and people-oriented personality who solves problems in a manner that you may not have previously imagined. He understands different structural systems and materials and knows how best to apply them for any given situation. Structural elements such as beams, columns, plates, trusses, shells, arches, domes, cables, etc are combined and produced using different materials such as concrete, steel, timber, aluminum, glass, etc to form a wholistic structural system that can resist loads.
The structure so designed must be able to resist forces coming from their own self-weight, other imposed loads due to storage and occupancy, indirect forces such as temperature difference and sinking of supports, and other environmental loads such as water waves, wind, and earthquake. These loads develop internal forces such as axial tension, compression, bending, shear, twisting, etc in the structural members which may cause collapse or failure. A structural engineer must assess the magnitude of these forces and design the structure to resist failure or collapse as a result of these forces.
Typical internal forces in a structure
While the laws of physics and mathematics are required to check that the selected system is stable, it is an art to ensure that the connection of the members, their alignment, and interaction maintains the elegance of the structure in a non-disruptive, economical, and efficient manner. It is also important to ensure that there is a sense of balance in the design and that the final output is aesthetically pleasing. A structural engineering work should not look haphazard or like the product of an afterthought.
A structural engineer is expected to have a detailed knowledge of the design codes of practice in his country, as well as good knowledge of engineering mechanics and structural analysis. In this modern era, the knowledge of different types of engineering design and drafting software such as Staad Pro, ETABS, Tekla, Revit Structures, AUTOCAD etc is very important. Furthermore, one of the most important tools of a structural engineer is experience.
With improvements in the field of material sciences and the quest for more elegant and environmentally friendly buildings, infrastructures, and general development, the intelligence, creativity, and skills of a structural engineer are constantly called upon. There are different kinds of structures for which the services of a structural engineer are required such as high-rise buildings, dams, bridges, earthworks, railways, pipelines, power stations, towers, water retaining structures, earth retaining structures, tunnels, roadways, offshore structures, culverts, transmission lines, reservoirs, etc.
Cable stayed bridges are works of structural engineering
Furthermore, the services of a structural engineer are also required in mechanical structures such as cranes, boilers, pressure vessels, elevators and escalators, carriages, marine vessels, hulls, etc.
A structural engineer’s primary concern is safety, and he must achieve this in an efficient and economical manner. In structures such as buildings and bridges, safety consideration ensures that the structure will not suffer any form of collapse or failure while in service. He must also ensure that the structure will perform satisfactorily by not vibrating excessively, swaying, or cracking when being used by the occupants. Some specialties in the field of structural engineering such as fire engineering, wind engineering, earthquake engineering, etc may be required depending on the peculiarities of the project.
Apart from the performance of the finished structure, a structural engineer is also concerned about the safety and good performance of the structure while it is still under construction. This involves the safety of the workers, ease of executing the design, environmental considerations, level of expertise available, and the cost and/or availability of the materials he is recommending. Generally, he ensures that the cost of the structure remains friendly to the client while satisfying other very important requirements.
Bridge under construction must be stable and safe for workers
In a typical building project, the structural engineer will not work alone but will be involved with other professionals such as architects, geotechnical engineers, surveyors, electrical engineers, interior decorators, mechanical engineers, etc. The technical coordination of these professionals is usually required during the design and construction stage. Therefore, a structural engineer should have good human relations skills.
Moreover, he should be able to communicate effectively using reports, emails, drawings, PowerPoint presentations, computer models, and orally. As a critical thinker whom a lot of persons and the environment depend on for safety, his training and development is vital and must be carefully observed.
A structural engineer is expected to obtain a bachelor’s degree in the field of structural or civil engineering from an approved university or institution of higher learning. He is then expected to work as a pupil or graduate engineer in a reputable engineering firm for a number of years in order to gather practical experience before applying for a ‘chartered’ or ‘registered/professional’ engineer status. This usually requires professional exams, presentations, and interviews from senior engineers and professional bodies. Engineers can be licenced as Civil Engineers, Structural Engineers or both .
In Nigeria, the criteria to be called a ‘structural engineer’ is to be issued a seal or license by COREN as ‘structural engineer’ or to be issued a license as a ‘civil engineer’ and belonging to the Nigerian Institution of Structural Engineers (NIStructE) as a professional member. You can only become a member of NIStructE by attempting and passing the part 3 exam of the professional body.
Some of the biggest structural engineering professional bodies in the world are the Institution of Structural Engineers (IStructE) and the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE). Belonging to these institutions usually gives someone global recognition as a structural engineer.
In essence, structural engineering is a prestigious profession that has the responsibility of driving the infrastructural development of the world. Their roles in making our universe a better place cannot be overemphasized. Whenever you set your eyes on amazing structures such as skyscrapers, bridges, towers, and other infrastructures, appreciate the efforts of the structural engineer in making such structures safe, stable, and usable.
Raft foundation is a type of shallow foundation that is provided in areas where the soils have a low bearing capacity, or where high superstructure load is anticipated such that individual pad foundations will overlap. A typical raft foundation is more expensive to construct than an equivalent pad foundation for a given area in a building. The aim of this article is to show the typical cost of constructing a raft foundation in Nigeria.
In the first place, there are different types of raft foundations such as flat raft foundation, beam and slab raft foundation, cellular raft foundation, etc. Each of these types of raft can be employed depending on the circumstances and design specifications, but the most common type of raft foundation employed for duplexes (most residential buildings) in Nigeria is the beam and slab raft foundation because of the favourable economic advantages it presents to the homeowner and the client.
The cost of constructing a raft foundation is influenced by;
the cost of setting out
environmental considerations
the member sizes (depth and width of beams and slabs)
the quantity of reinforcements required
formwork requirements and the complexity of the construction
the volume of excavation required
backfilling the substructure
Other substructure requirements such as compacting, hardcore (if required), damp proof membrane, etc
availability and cost of labour, and
the cost of construction materials in the area
The thickness of the raft slab and the depth and width of the ground beams will determine the volume of concrete required for executing the raft foundation. This is is actually a function of the design specifications, and will significantly affect the overall cost of the construction. Standard design drawings that will be economical and also satisfy all requirements can be provided by Structville Integrated Services Limited (info@structville.com). The cost of executing concrete works in Nigeria varies and is usually influenced by the price of cement, and aggregates.
Reinforcement requirements for a raft foundation are also determined by the design engineer, and the quantity provided will have a significant impact on the cost of the project too. The major cost impact will come from the cost of purchasing, cutting, bending, and installing the reinforcements according to the design drawing. The cost of executing reinforcement works will depend on the type of reinforcement, the quantity required, and the cost of labour.
The carpenters will also charge for the cost of fixing the formwork of the ground beams, and the edge formwork for receiving the raft slab. The cost of the marine boards, planks, 2″ x 3″ wood, props, nails, etc will also be borne by the client.
In areas of high water table, the cost of controlling groundwater so that construction can be carried out in the dry will also affect the cost of the raft foundation. This will also influence the cost of excavation of the trenches to receive the ground beams.
Let us show with an example, the typical cost of constructing the raft foundation of a duplex building in Nigeria. The design drawings are shown below;
The properties of the raft foundation are as follows;
Thickness of the raft slab = 200 mm Dimensions of the ground beams = 1050 x 230 mm Dimensions of the columns = 230 x 230 mm
The typical ground beam reinforcement details are shown below;
Typical Costing and Processes for Raft Foundation Construction
(1) Setting Out Works Allow a lump sum of ₦150,000 (Note that this may vary depending on how challenging the setting out process is. The services of a surveyor may be required, and materials like pegs, 2 inches nails, 3 inches nails, 2″ x 3″ hardwood, lines, etc will be required. The professional fee of the carpenters, foreman, supervisors, resident engineers, consulting architects etc may also be required depending on the nature of the contract).
In this case, we are assuming that the contractor is accepting to do the setting out for the price stated above with his team. All professionals in the job have been paid by the client. The contractor is to provide all the materials needed for the setting out.
It very important that the architect and design engineer verify the setting out before excavation can commence. All setbacks and airspace should be confirmed, including the squareness of the building. The deviation of dimensions on the profile board should not exceed 5 mm.
(2) Excavation From the design drawings and quantity take-off, the following quantities have been verified; Total length of excavation = 121 m Depth of excavation = 500 mm Width of excavation = 700 mm Volume of excavation = 42.218 m3
Allow for excavation using direct manual labour @ ₦300 per linear metre. Cost of excavation = 300 x 121 = ₦36,300 Allow 30% to cover for contractors profit and overhead = 1.3 x 36,300 = ₦47,190
(3) Blinding of excavation The thickness of blinding = 50 mm The volume of concrete required for blinding = 4.3 m3 (Using M15 concrete) For mixing, placing, and consolidating grade 15 concrete (cement price at ₦3,500) = ₦30,800/m3 Cost of blinding = 30800 x 4.3 = ₦132,440 Allow 20% to cover for contractor’s profit and overhead = 1.2 x 132,440 = ₦158,928
(4) Reinforcement works – Ground beam Y20 required = 596.772 kg Y16 required = 573.177 kg Y12 required (side bars) = 644.688 kg Y8 required (links) = 462.655 kg Y16 required (column starter bars)= 297.8 kg Y8 required (as links for column starter bars) Total quantity of reinforcement required for ground beams = 2277.292 kg = 2.278 tonnes Allow 5% for waste and laps = 1.05 x 2.278 = 2.391 tonnes
Total cost of reinforcements and binding wire = ₦825,120 Cost of labour = ₦60,000 Cost of materials and labour for reinforcement works (ground beam) = ₦885,120 Allow 25% to cover for contractor’s profit and overhead = 1.25 x 885,120 = ₦1,106,400
(5) Formwork – Ground beam The marine board to be purchased will be reused for the decking of the first-floor slab. Therefore, we will utilise full boards for the ground beam formwork. Marine board can be reused about 5 times before the quality deteriorates. Let us assume that the quantity to be purchased at this stage should be able to do half of the ground beams.
The total area of formwork = 288 m2 Quantity of marine board required for half of the formwork = 55 pieces @ ₦9000/board = ₦495,000 2″ x 3″ softwood required = 380 pieces @ ₦400/length = ₦152,000 3″ Nails reuired = 100 kg @ ₦300/kg = ₦30,000 Labour @ ₦500/m2 = ₦144,000
Cost of ground beam formwork (materials and labour) = ₦821,000 Allow 20% to cover for contractor’s profit and overhead = 1.2 x 821,000 = ₦985,200
(6) Concrete Works – Ground Beam Volume of concrete required = 23.46 m3 For mixing, placing, and consolidating grade 25 concrete (cement price at ₦3,500) = ₦44,100/m3 Cost of concrete for ground beams = 44,100 x 23.46 = ₦1,034,586 Allow 20% to cover for contractor’s profit and overhead = 1.2 x 1,034,586 = ₦1,241,503
(7) Backfilling and compaction The volume of filling sand required = 86.775 m3 = 145 tonnes of filling sand Cost of filling sand = ₦181,250
Cost of labour for filling and compacting (direct manual labour) = @ ₦800/m3 = ₦69,420 Total cost for filling = ₦250,670 Allow 20% to cover for contractor’s profit and overhead = 1.2 x 250,670 = ₦300,804
(8) Levelling and installation of damp proof membrane
Allow a lump sum of ₦70,000
(9) Blinding to receive raft slab Thickness of blinding = 50 mm The volume of concrete required for blinding = 9.35 m3 (Using M15 concrete) For mixing, placing, and consolidating grade 15 concrete (cement price at ₦3,500) = ₦30,800/m3 Cost of blinding = 30800 x 9.35 = ₦287,980 Allow 20% to cover for contractor’s profit and overhead = 1.2 x 287,980 = ₦345,576
(10) Raft slab reinforcement works Y12 – 2922 kg Y10 – 300 kg Total quantity of reinforcement required = 3222 kg = 3.222 tonnes Allow 5% for waste and laps = 1.05 x 3.222 = 3.383 tonnes
Cost of reinforcement and binding wire = ₦1,132,560 Cost of labour = ₦84,575 Cost of materials and labour for reinforcement works (raft slab) = ₦1,217,135 Allow 25% to cover for contractor’s profit and overhead = 1.25 x 1,217,135 = ₦1,521,419
(11) Edge formwork for raft slab Allow a labour cost of = ₦30,000
(12) Concrete Works – Raft Slab The volume of concrete required = 37.4 m3 For mixing, placing, and consolidating grade 25 concrete (cement price at ₦3,500) = ₦44,100/m3 Cost of concrete for ground beams = 44,100 x 37.4 = ₦1,649,340 Allow 20% to cover for contractor’s profit and overhead = 1.2 x 1,649,340 = ₦1,979,208
Summary (1) Setting Out – ₦150,000 (2) Excavation – ₦47,190 (3) Blinding of excavation = ₦158,928 (4) Reinforcement works – Ground beam – ₦1,106,400 (5) Formwork – Ground beam – ₦985,200 (6) Concrete Works – Ground Beam – ₦1,241,503 (7) Backfilling and Compaction – ₦300,804 (8) Levelling and installation of damp proof membrane – ₦70,000 (9) Blinding to receive raft slab – ₦345,576 (10) Raft slab reinforcement works – ₦1,521,419 (11) Edge formwork for raft slab – ₦30,000 (12) Concrete Works – Raft Slab – ₦1,979,208
The total typical cost of constructing a raft foundation in Nigeria = ₦7,936,288
Remember to add 7.5% tax.
For the design, construction, and project management of your building projects in Nigeria, contact;
Beams deform when loaded. This deformation is the displacement of the beam section from its original position, and it is usually quantified using two parameters known as slope and deflection. When loaded, the neutral axis of the beam becomes a curved line which is referred to as the elastic curve.
The vertical distance between the elastic curve and the original neutral axis of the beam is known as the deflection, while the angle (in radians) that the original neutral axis makes with the elastic curve is known as the slope.
A cantilever is a beam that is rigidly fixed at one end and free at the other. In structural designs, cantilevers are the most sensitive to serviceability issues such as deflection and vibration. There are many ways of assessing the elastic deflection of cantilever beams such as;
Double integration method
Moment Area method
Virtual work method
Conjugate beam method
Strain energy method
Castigliano’s theorem
Finite element method
Vereschagin’s method, etc
Typical deflection of a cantilever beam
The aim of this article is to demonstrate the application of Vereschagin’s rule to the evaluation of the deflection of cantilever beams. Vereschagin’s rule is based on the famous Maxwell-Mohr’s integral, but instead of carrying out the actual integration, the bending moment diagram due to the externally applied load is combined with the bending moment due to a unit concentrated virtual load (graph multiplication) to obtain the deflection at that point. Vereschagin’s rule is the graphical method of Maxwell-Mohr’s integral.
This method also forms the backbone of analysing structures using the force method. The charts for combining different types of bending moment diagrams are available in most standard structural engineering textbooks. In the year 2016, I also wrote an article on how to develop the equations on the charts from the first principle. You can download the article from the link below;
At the fixed end A, we know that the slope is equal to zero. Therefore;
At x = 0; ∂y/∂x = 0 ⇒ C1 = -53.333
The general equation for the slope of the beam at any point is therefore given by;
EI(∂y/∂x) = [5(4 – x)3]/6 – 53.333 —— (2)
On integrating equation (2), we can obtain the equation for the deflection of the beam at any point;
EI(y) = [-5(4 – x)4]/24 + 53.333x + C2
At the fixed end A, we know that the deflection is equal to zero. Therefore; At x = 0, y = 0 C2 = -53.333
Hence, the general equation for deflection is;
EI(y) = [-5(4 – x)4]/24 + 53.333x – 53.333 —— (3)
Using equations (2) and (3), the slope and deflection at any point along the beam can be obtained.
At the free end (point C) where x = L = 4 m;
The slope at point C is given by; EIϴC = [5(4 – 4)3]/6 – 53.333 = -53.333 ϴC = -53.333/EI radians
The deflection at point C is given by; EIyc = [-5(4 – 4)4]/24 + 53.333x – 53.333 = 53.333(4) – 53.333 = 160 yc = 160/EI metres
Similarly, we can attempt to obtain the deflection at point B using equations (1) and (2);
At point B where x = 3 m;
The slope at point B is given by; EIϴB = [5(4 – 3)3]/6 – 53.333 = -52.5 ϴB = -52.5/EI radians
The deflection at point B is given by; EIyB = [-5(4 – 3)4]/24 + 53.333x – 53.333 = -0.208 + 53.333(3) – 53.333 = 106.457 yB = 106.457/EI metres
Using Vereschagin’s Rule (Graphical Method)
Step 1 The first step of the process is to draw the bending moment diagram due to the externally applied load.
A little calculation will show that the maximum moment will occur at the fixed end of the cantilever and it is given by MA = -qL2/2 = (5 × 42)/2 = -40 kNm
Step 2 The second step is to place a vertical unit concentrated load at the point we want to obtain the deflection and draw the bending moment diagram due to the unit load. To obtain the slope at any point, we apply a unit moment (rotation) instead of a unit vertical load.
For instance, if we want to obtain the vertical deflection at point C, we remove the externally applied load and replace it with a unit vertical load at point C as shown below. The bending moment diagram obtained from this step is expected to be linear.
Step 3 The next step is to combine the bending moment diagram due to the externally applied load with the bending moment diagram due to the unit load. In principle, this combination involves multiplying the area of the principal bending moment diagram with the ordinate that the linear bending moment diagram makes with the centroid of the principal diagram. This is shown below;
You may not really have to stress yourself determining the area and centroid of different shapes because tables are readily available for most of the diagrams encountered during analysis.
For the shapes shown above, the combination equation is given by;
You can confirm that this is similar to the answer obtained using the double integration method.
To obtain the slope at point C, we apply a unit rotation at point C and plot the moment diagram as shown below;
The diagram combination will now be;
From structural engineering tables; EIϴC = -1/3 x 40 x 4 x 1 = -53.333 ϴC = -53.333/EI radians
As you can see, the Vereschagin’s method is the quickest way of assessing the deflection of statically determinate structures, provided that the combination tables for bending moment diagrams are available.
The use of passenger ropeways (cable car) is a viable alternative for public transportation in urban areas with challenging topography. Aerial ropeway transportation is a type of cable railway mass transit system in which rail cars are hauled from one location to another by the use of moving cables. The design of the supporting structures and the cables for strength and stability is the duty of a structural engineer.
According to researchers from the Institute of Fundamental and Applied Research, Petrovskii Bryansk State University, Bryansk, Russia, the construction of ropeways has a rather high cost and requires taking into account a significant number of restrictions associated with the features of the existing urban development and the placement of urban infrastructure. As a result, they carried out research to develop optimization models that minimize the total cost of modular intermediate height.
Typical ropeway transport system
The models developed were for discretely variable height and a rope system, and involves the optimal placement and selection of the height of these towers, taking into account the features of the surface topography and urban development.
Furthermore, the proposed modular principle for the construction of intermediate towers is expected to reduce the cost of construction. The study was published in the journal Urban Rail Transit (Springer) in the year 2020.
The cost of constructing a ropeway transit system depends on so many factors such as the location of the line, the ground in the interval between the terminal stations, the parameters of intermediate tower structures, the characteristics of the carrying and traction ropes, etc. During design, these factors can be manageable within certain limits, thereby managing the cost of ropeway construction.
According to the authors, previous research works have shown that the cost of optimal variants of passenger aerial ropeways is significantly influenced by the height of intermediate towers. Therefore, the optimal design of the ropeway along the surface with a heterogeneous terrain results in the optimal variant requiring the installation of intermediate towers of individual height.
In order to solve the technical and economic problem of optimal ropeway design with intermediate towers of discretely variable height, they advised the use of two optimization models which involve the model of optimization of the installation step of the modular intermediate tower, and the model of optimization of the ropeway in general.
Calculation diagram of the ropeway section between the adjacent intermediate towers (Lagerev and Lagerev, 2020)
After the development of the models, calculations were made for a number of possible variants of the aerial passenger ropeway using the computer program ‘‘Optimization of the ropeway lines with unified towers’’. The results showed that the technical and economic indicators of the optimal variant of installation of unified intermediate towers depend on the step of unification, the cost of the tower itself and the foundation structures, the cost of the process equipment, and the terrain inclination angle.
According to the authors, the developed design method for passenger aerial ropeways, based on minimizing the construction cost, can be recommended for use at the initial stage of a design. The analysis of the terrain along the axis of the ropeway allows one to build a height profile for the installation of intermediate towers, to determine the angles of inclination to the horizon of separate sections of this profile and identify the maximum angle among them.
Typical variants of ropeway lines in Bryansk City (Lagerev and Lagerev, 2020)
It is advisable to use the method when analyzing the following design situations:
• the location of the ropeway line on the ground has already been pre-selected; • the location of the ropeway line on the ground has not yet been pre-selected, and the designer is considering several alternative options.
To obtain more information about the research findings and the models developed, download the article from the reference below.
Reference Lagerev A. V. and Lagerev I. A. (2020): Designing Supporting Structures of Passenger Ropeways of Minimum Cost Based on Modular Intermediate Towers of Discretely Variable Height. Urban Rail Transit (2020) 6:265–277 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40864-020-00137-0
Disclaimer This research article has been reproduced in part on www.structville.com because it is an open-access article licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made (To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.). The contents of this article belong to the original copyright owners.
The idea of tall buildings has always been an exciting one to mankind. Towards the end of the 19th Century, the construction of tall buildings started in Chicago, due to new inventions such as the elevator and the telephone (Ali and Moon, 2007; Hallebrand and Jakobsson, 2016). Prior to the development of buildings for occupancy purposes, tall structures have been built in ancient times to satisfy one desire or another.
“They said to each other, “Come let us make bricks and bake them thoroughly”. They used brick instead of stone, and bitumen for mortar. Then they said, “Come let us build ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves and not be scattered over the face of the earth” – (Genesis 11:3 – 4)
In the quote above from the Bible, the quest for the construction of the Tower of Babel was driven by pride to reach towards the sky, and the quest to live together in one place. Other structures built in ancient times such as the Colossus of Rhodes, the Pyramids of Egypt (see Figure below), the Mayan temples of Mexico, and the Kutub Minar of India seems to have been determined by pride, ego, and competition (Bungale, 2010).
The Pyramids of Egypt (Choi, 2009)
The Pyramids of Egypt were constructed around 2500 BC as tombs for Pharaohs and stood at about 140 m tall. These ancient tall structures were not used as human habitats but were monuments and places of worship (Khanna and Chand, 2019).
In the Middle Ages between 11th and 13th centuries, tall towers were used in the town of San Gimignano, Italy, for defence (see below), but were later used as residential buildings (Hoogendoorn, 2009; Czyńska, 2018). Even though most of the structures have collapsed, some of them have been preserved on the skylines of the city, with the tallest towers exceeding a height of about 50 m. For this reason, San Gimignano is called the medieval Manhattan (Czyńska, 2018).
San Gimignano, Italy
Until the mid 19th century, gothic cathedrals were some of the tallest facilities in the world (Czyńska, 2018). In Europe, the construction of cathedrals led to the establishment of a quasi-religious status for the masons who were designing these amazing structures. For instance, the Cologne Cathedral was begun in 1248, and the masons used their knowledge to build a structure that must have installed awe in all who looked upon her (Gustaffson and Hehir, 2005).
Due to the limitations associated with construction of tall buildings using materials such as timber and bricks, builders began to look for alternative materials. The industrial revolution provided the materials such as wrought iron and steel. This also provided the social impetus for building higher as more workers from the countryside were required to work in the factories, so houses had to be provided for them (Gustaffson and Hehir, 2005).
Increased use of cast iron and later steel allowed the development of new architectural forms, such as long span roofs and bridges (Czyńska 2018). The result was the iron/steel frame structure which minimized the depth and width of the structural members at building perimeters (Ali and Moon, 2007).
The term high-rise began to be used to describe tall buildings and with the development in steel production and elevator, ever higher, buildings were being built. The first steel frame structure, Rand-McNally Building in Chicago was built in 1889 and was 10 storeys high (Smith and Coull, 1991).
The symbolic power of skyscrapers being recognized, a notable phenomenon occurred from the turn of the century. A skyscraper height race began, starting from the Park Row Building in New York, which had already reached 30 stories in 1899. This height race culminated with the completion of the 102-storey tall Empire State Building in 1931.
The Empire State Building
In terms of structural systems, most tall buildings in the early twentieth century employed steel rigid frames with wind bracing. Among them are the renowned Woolworth Building of 1913, Chrysler Building of 1930 and Empire State Building of 1931 all in New York (Ali, 2005). Their enormous heights at that time were accomplished not through notable technological evolution, but through excessive use of structural materials. Due to the absence of advanced structural analysis techniques, they were quite over-designed (Ali and Moon, 2007).
The early stages of American architecture lacked truly monumental structures. The monumental idea was gradually added to American architectural forms, reaching its apex with the construction of the Rockefeller Center in New York City (see below). The center represented a new concept of building a city within a city, containing a towering 60-storey structure surrounded by a number of smaller high-rise office buildings and recreational facilities.
The Rockefeller Center, New York City
This complex of skyscrapers has exercised increased influence since 1931, the year work on the Center was started. The building represents a departure in architectural thinking from a single-use, single-building concept to multi-use, multi-complex structures on a community scale.
Because of that practical example, American architectures responded more and more creatively to such demands and integration of city and the surrounding region. Another example of multi-building planning is the now nonexistent World Trade Center in New York City that consisted of twin 110-story towers and four smaller buildings grouped around a plaza (Bungale, 2010).
From 1950 to the mid-1960s, the International Style of architecture was embraced by prominent American architects and resulted in sleek boxlike glass and concrete or steel high-rises which integrated the concept of purity of design into the architecture of the structure. Notable examples are the Seagram Building (1950) and the Whitney Museum (1966), both in New York City, and the John Hancock Center (1968) in Chicago.
During the mid-1960s a reaction developed to the International Style that emphasized greater freedom of design. Figuratively speaking, the concept of glass box was beginning to shatter. It was no longer wrong to hide a structure behind a more aesthetic exterior.
The building and construction industry saw the advent of new forms of structural and other materials which allowed greater scope for aesthetic expression and innovation. Within the last two decades many major cities have had imaginative new shapes thrusting above their skylines using plan shapes that are other than prismatic (Bungale, 2010).
During the nineties, Asia started to take over the historically leading roles of tall buildings from the United States. New tall buildings have been built in a short period of time in the Far East and the Middle East (Hoogendoorn, 2009). The bank of China with a height of 267 m was completed in the year 1989 in Hong Kong, while the Jin Mao Tower in Shanghai with a height of 421 m was completed in the year 1998.
The Malaysian Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur with a height of 452 m was completed in the year 1999. As at 2004, the tallest building in the world was the Taepei 101 in Taiwan with a height of 508 m. Currently, the tallest building in the world remains the Burj Khalifa in Dubai with a height of 829.8m.
Chart of the world’s tallest buildings (www.wikipedia.org)
According to www.skyscrapercentre.com, the year 2020 yielded 106 completions of buildings 200 meters and taller, a 20 percent decline from 133 in 2019, and nearing a level last seen in 2014, when 105 such buildings were constructed. This is the second year in a row in which the completion figure declined. The tallest building to complete in 2020 was Central Park Tower in New York City, at 472 meters. This is the first time in five years in which the tallest completed building was not in China, and the first time since 2014, when One World Trade Center completed, that the tallest building of the year was in the United States. This is also the first year since 2014 in which there has not been at least one building taller than 500 meters completed.
References Ali, M.M. (2005): The skyscraper: Epitome of human aspirations. In Proceedings of the 7th World Congress of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat: Renewing the Urban Landscape [CD-ROM]. Chicago, IL: Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. Ali M.M., and Moon K.S. (2007): Structural developments in tall buildings: Current trends and future prospects. Architectural Science Review 50(3):205-223 Bungale S. T. (2010): Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group Choi Hi Sun (2009): Super tall building design approach. Proceedings to the American Institute of Architects Continuing Education Program Czynska K. (2018): A brief history of tall buildings in the context of cityscape transformation in Europe. Space and Form (36):281-296 Gustaffson D., and Hehir J. (2005): Stability of tall buildings. M.Sc thesis submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden Hallebrand E., and Jakobsson W. (2016): Structural design of high-rise buildings. M.Sc thesis presented to the Department of Construction Sciences (Division of structural mechanics), Lund University, Sweden Hoogendoorn P.P (2009): Lateral load design of tall buildings: Evaluation and comparison for tall buildings in Madrid, Spain. M.Sc thesis presented to the Department of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology Khanna N., and Chand J. (2019): Optimum structural design for high rise buildings. International Journal ofInnovative Technology and Exploring Engineering 8(8):1469 – 1473 Smith, B.S. and Coull, A. (1991): Tall Building Structures: Analysis and Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Singapore
For the cantilever beam loaded as shown above, which of the following diagram combinations will likely give the vertical deflection at point B based on y = 1/EI∫Mṁ ds ?
For the frame loaded as shown above, which of the following is the likely bending moment due to the externally applied unit load at point G? You are expected to analyse the structure by glancing atit without carrying out any physical calculation using pen, paper, or calculator.
Elsevier is undoubtedly one of the most renowned publishers of scientific and educational materials in the world. By offering the publication of textbooks, journals, and other services, they help advance research, information, and knowledge across several disciplines. According to their official website, the goal of Elsevier is to expand the boundaries of knowledge for the benefit of humanity.
If you have come up with a quality research article in Civil Engineering, you may want to consider publishing it with Elsevier since most articles published by Elsevier are usually rated very high in the world. Furthermore, most of their journals support open access and closed access. For closed access (standard subscription journals), your research article will be published free of charge by the journal, but access will be restricted to those who subscribe to the journal or those who are willing to purchase it. If you choose to publish it as open access (freely accessible to anyone), then you may have to pay for the publication.
In the list below, we are going to show different journals published by Elsevier that covers civil engineering topics or other related disciplines;
(1) Journal of Ocean Engineering and Science Journal of Ocean Engineering and Science (JOES) provides a medium for the publication of original research and latest development work in the field of ocean science and technology.
(2) Structures Structures aims to publish internationally-leading research across the full breadth of structural engineering. Papers for Structures are particularly welcome in which high-quality research will benefit from wide readership of academics and practitioners such that not only high citation rates but also tangible industrial-related pathways to impact are achieved.
(3) Case Studies in Construction Materials Case Studies in Construction Materials provides a forum for the rapid publication of short, structured Case Studies on construction materials and related Short Communications, specialising in actual case studies involving real construction projects.
(4) Water Resources and Industry Water Resources and Industry is one of a series of specialist titles launched by the highly-regarded Water Research. This journal moves research to innovation by focusing on the role industry plays in the exploitation, management and treatment of water resources.
(5) Sustainable Cities and Societies Sustainable Cities and Society (SCS) is an international journal focusing on fundamental and applied research aimed at designing, understanding, and promoting environmentally sustainable and socially resilient cities.
(6) Water Science and Engineering Water Science and Engineering journal is an international, peer-reviewed research publication covering new concepts, theories, methods, and techniques related to water issues.
(7) International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences This journal is concerned with original research, new developments, site measurements and case studies in rock mechanics and rock engineering. It provides an international forum for the publication of high quality papers on the subject of rock mechanics and the application of rock mechanics principles and techniques to mining and civil engineering projects built on or in rock masses.
(8) Cement and Concrete Composites This journal is designed to reflect current developments and advances being made in the general field of cement-concrete composites technology and in the production, use, and performance of cement-basedconstruction materials.
(9) Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements This journal is specifically dedicated to the dissemination of the latest developments of new engineering analysis techniques using boundary elements and other mesh reduction methods.
(10) Marine Structures This journal aims to provide a medium for presentation and discussion of the latest developments in research, design, fabrication and in-service experience relating to marine structures, i.e., all structures of steel, concrete, light alloy or composite construction having an interface with the sea, including ships, fixed and mobile offshore platforms, submarine and submersibles, pipelines, subsea systems for shallow and deep ocean operations and coastal structures such as piers.
(11) Construction and Building Materials Construction and Building Materials provides an international forum for the dissemination of innovative and original research and development in the field of construction and building materials and their application in new works and repair practice. The journal publishes a wide range of innovative research and application papers which describe laboratory and to a limited extent numerical investigations or report on full scale projects.
(12) Finite Elements in Analysis and Design The aim of this journal is to provide ideas and information involving the use of the finite element method and its variants, both in scientific inquiry and in professional practice. The scope is intentionally broad, encompassing use of the finite element method in engineering as well as the pure and applied sciences.
(13) Thin-walled Structures Thin-walled structures comprises an important and growing proportion of engineering construction with areas of application becoming increasingly diverse, ranging from aircraft, bridges, ships, and oil rigs to storage vessels, industrial buildings and warehouses. The primary criterion for consideration of papers in Thin–Walled Structures is that they must be concerned with thin–walled structures or the basic problems inherent in thin-walled structures. Provided this criterion is satisfied no restriction is placed on the type of construction, material or field of application.
(14) Journal of Constructional Steel Research The Journal of Constructional Steel Research provides an international forum for the presentation and discussion of the latest developments in structural steel research and their applications. It is aimed not only at researchers but also at those likely to be most affected by research results, i.e. designers and fabricators.
(15) Engineering Structures Engineering Structures provides a forum for a broad blend of scientific and technical papers to reflect the evolving needs of the structural engineering and structural mechanics communities. Particularly welcome are contributions dealing with new developments or innovative applications of structural and mechanics principles and digital technologies for the analysis and design of engineering structures.
(16) Building and Environment Building and Environment is an international journal that publishes original research papers and review articles related to building science, urban physics, and human interaction with the indoor and outdoor built environment.
(17) Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics The objective of the journal is to provide a means for the publication and interchange of information, on an international basis, on all those aspects of wind engineering that are included in the activities of the International Association for Wind Engineering http://www.iawe.org/. These are; social and economic impact of wind effects; wind characteristics and structure, local wind environments, wind loads and structural response, diffusion, pollutant dispersion and matter transport, wind effects on building heat loss and ventilation, wind effects on transport systems, aerodynamic aspects of wind energy generation, and codification of wind effects.
(18) Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering was founded over three decades ago, providing a platform for the publication of papers in advanced mathematical modeling and numerical solutions reflecting a combination of concepts, methods and principles that are often interdisciplinary in nature and span several areas of mechanics, mathematics, computer science and other scientific disciplines as well.
(19) Computers and Structures Computers & Structures publishes advances in the development and use of computational methods for the solution of problems in engineering and the sciences. The range of appropriate contributions is wide, and includes papers on establishing appropriate mathematical models and their numerical solution in all areas of mechanics.
(20) Cement and Concrete Research The aim of Cement and Concrete Research is to publish the best research on the materials science and engineering of cement, cement composites, mortars, concrete and other allied materials that incorporate cement or other mineral binders. In doing so, the journal will focus on reporting major results of research on the properties and performance of cementitious materials; novel experimental techniques; the latest analytical and modelling methods; the examination and the diagnosis of real cement and concrete structures; and the potential for improved materials.
(21) International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics The International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics provides a specific medium for dissemination of high-quality research results in the various areas of theoretical, applied, and experimental mechanics of solids, fluids, structures, and systems where the phenomena are inherently non-linear.
(22) Tunneling and Underground Space Technology Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research is an international journal which publishes authoritative articles encompassing original research and case studies on the development of tunnelling technology, the use of underground space and trenchless technology.
(23) Journal of Terramechanics The Journal of Terramechanics provides a forum for those involved in research, development, design, innovation, testing, application and utilization of off-road vehicles and soil working machinery, and their sub-systems and components. The Journal presents a cross-section of technical papers, reviews, comments and discussions, and serves as a medium for recording recent progress in the field.
(24) Transportation Geotechnics Transportation Geotechnics aims to publish high quality, theoretical and applied papers on all aspects of geotechnics for roads, highways, railways and underground railways, airfields and waterways.
(25) Automation in Construction Automation in Construction is an international journal for the publication of original research papers. The journal publishes refereed material on all aspects pertaining to the use of Information Technologies in Design, Engineering, Construction Technologies, and Maintenance and Management of Constructed Facilities.
(26) Geotextiles and geomembranes Geotextiles and Geomembranes fills this need and provides a forum for the dissemination of information amongst research workers, designers, users and manufacturers of geotextiles and geomembranes. By providing a growing fund of information the journal increases general awareness, prompts further research and assists in the establishment of international codes and regulations.
(27) Soils and Foundations Soils and Foundations is one of the leading journals in the field of soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering. It is the official journal of the Japanese Geotechnical Society (JGS)., The journal publishes a variety of original research paper, technical reports, technical notes, as well as the state-of-the-art reports upon invitation by the Editor, in the fields of soil and rock mechanics, geotechnical engineering, and environmental geotechnics.
(28) Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering The journal aims to encourage and enhance the role of mechanics and other disciplines as they relate to earthquake engineering by providing opportunities for the publication of the work of applied mathematicians, engineers and other applied scientists involved in solving problems closely related to the field of earthquake engineering and geotechnical earthquake engineering.
(29) Advances in Water Resources Advances in Water Resources provides a forum for the presentation of fundamental scientific advances in the understanding of water resources systems. The scope of Advances in Water Resources includes any combination of theoretical, computational, and experimental approaches used to advance fundamental understanding of surface or subsurface water resources systems or the interaction of these systems with the atmosphere, geosphere, biosphere, and human societies.
(30) Journal of Building Engineering The Journal of Building Engineering (JOBE) is an interdisciplinary journal that covers all aspects of science and technology concerned with the whole life cycle of the built environment; from the design phase through to construction, operation, performance, maintenance and its deterioration. JOBE only publishes papers where significant scientific novelty is clearly demonstrated.
(31) Computers and Geotechnics Computers and Geotechnics provides an up-to-date reference for engineers and researchers engaged in computer-aided analysis and research in geotechnical engineering. The journal is intended for expeditious dissemination of advanced computer applications across a broad range of geotechnical topics. Contributions on advances in numerical algorithms, computer implementation of new constitutive models, and probabilistic methods are especially encouraged.
(32) Transportation Engineering Transportation Engineering will publish full research papers, review papers and short communications (new ideas, controversial opinions, proof of concept). The scope of Transportation engineering covers all as aspects of transport engineering, including both vehicle engineering (including automotive, aerospace, and naval) and civil engineering (planning, design, construction, maintenance, and operation for all type of systems infrastructures).
(33) Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering As an academic journal, the Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering (English Edition) provides a platform for the exchange and discussion of novel and creative ideas on theoretical and experimental research in the field of transportation. This journal publishes high-quality peer-reviewed papers on engineering, planning, management, and information technology for transportation.
(34) Composite Structures Composite Structures, an International Journal, disseminates knowledge between users, manufacturers, designers, and researchers involved in structures or structural components manufactured using composite materials.
(35) International Journal of Solids and Structures The International Journal of Solids and Structures has as its objective the publication and dissemination of original research in Mechanics of Solids and Structures as a field of Applied Science and Engineering. It fosters thus the exchange of ideas among workers in different parts of the world and also among workers who emphasize different aspects of the foundations and applications of the field.
(36) Journal of Fluids and Structures The Journal of Fluids and Structures serves as a focal point and a forum for the exchange of ideas, for the many kinds of specialists and practitioners concerned with fluid–structureinteractions and the dynamics of systems related thereto, in any field. One of its aims is to foster the cross-fertilization of ideas, methods and techniques in the various disciplines involved.
(37) Engineering Engineering is an international open-access journal that was launched by the Chinese Academy of Engineering (CAE) in 2015. Its aims are to provide a high-level platform where cutting-edge advancements in engineering R&D, current major research outputs, and key achievements can be disseminated and shared; to report progress in engineering science, discuss hot topics, areas of interest, challenges, and prospects in engineering development, and consider human and environmental well-being and ethics in engineering; to encourage engineering breakthroughs and innovations that are of profound economic and social importance, enabling them to reach advanced international standards and to become a new productive force, and thereby changing the world, benefiting humanity, and creating a new future.
(38) Development Engineering Development Engineering: The Journal of Engineering in Economic Development (Dev Eng) is an open access, interdisciplinary journal applying engineering and economic research to the problems of poverty. Published studies must present novel research motivated by a specific global development problem. The journal serves as a bridge between engineers, economists, and other scientists involved in research on human, social, and economic development.
(39) Alexandria Engineering Journal Alexandria Engineering Journal is an international journal devoted to publishing high-quality papers in the field of engineering and applied science. Alexandria Engineering Journal is cited in the Engineering Information Services (EIS) and the Chemical Abstracts (CA). The papers published in Alexandria Engineering Journal are grouped into five sections, according to the following classification:
• Mechanical, Production, Marine and Textile Engineering • Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Nuclear Engineering • Civil and Architecture Engineering • Chemical Engineering and Applied Sciences • Environmental Engineering
(40) Engineering Failure Analysis Engineering Failure Analysis publishes research papers describing the analysis of engineering failures and related studies. Papers relating to the structure, properties and behaviour of engineering materials are encouraged, particularly those which also involve the detailed application of materials parameters to problems in engineering structures, components and design. In addition to the area of materials engineering, the interacting fields of mechanical, manufacturing, aeronautical, civil, chemical, corrosion and design engineering are considered relevant.
(41) Developments in the Built Environment Developments in the Built Environment (DIBE) is a new peer-reviewed gold open access (OA) journal whereby upon acceptance all articles are permanently and freely available. DIBE publishes original papers and short communications resulting from research in civil engineering and the built environment. This journal covers all topics related to construction materials and building sustainability, leading to a holistic approach that will benefit the community.
(42) Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal (JESTECH) (formerly Technology), a peer-reviewed quarterly engineering journal, publishes both theoretical and experimental high quality papers of permanent interest, not previously published in journals, in the field of engineering and applied science which aims to promote the theory and practice of technology and engineering. In addition to peer-reviewed original research papers, the Editorial Board welcomes original research reports, state-of-the-art reviews and communications in the broadly defined field of engineering science and technology.
(43) International Journal of Engineering Science The International Journal of Engineering Science is not limited to a specific aspect of science and engineering but is instead devoted to a wide range of subfields in the engineering sciences. While it encourages a broad spectrum of contribution in the engineering sciences, its core interest lies in issues concerning material modeling and response. Articles of interdisciplinary nature are particularly welcome.
(44) Fire Safety Journal Fire Safety Journal is the leading publication dealing with all aspects of fire safety engineering. Its scope is purposefully wide, as it is deemed important to encourage papers from all sources within this multidisciplinary subject, thus providing a forum for its further development as a distinct engineering discipline. This is an essential step towards gaining a status equal to that enjoyed by the other engineering disciplines.
(45) Water Resources and Economics Water Resources and Economics is one of a series of specialist titles launched by the highly-regarded Water Research. For the purpose of sustainable water resources management, understanding the multiple connections and feedback mechanisms between water resources and the economy is crucial. Water Resources and Economics addresses the financial and economic dimensions associated with water resources use and governance, across different economic sectors like agriculture, energy, industry, shipping, recreation and urban and rural water supply, at local, regional and transboundary scale.
(46) Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment The aim of the Journal is to publish research results of the highest quality and of lasting importance on the subject of geomechanics, with the focus on applications to geological energy production and storage, and the interaction of soils and rocks with the natural and engineered environment. Special attention is given to concepts and developments of new energy geotechnologies that comprise intrinsic mechanisms protecting the environment against a potential engineering induced damage, hence warranting sustainable usage of energy resources.
